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Гомосексуальность
Термин гомосексуальность относится к сексуальному поведению или влечению между людьми одного пола, или к сексуальной ориентации индивида. Гомосексуальная ориентация — это стойкая идентичность человека по отношению к романтическим и сексуальным влечениям и отношениям со своим полом, а не только сексуальное поведение человека. Гомосексуальность противопоставляется гетеросексуальности (влечению к противоположному полу), бисексуальности (одновременному влечению к своему и к противоположному полу) и асексуальности (отсутствию сексуального влечения вообще). Этимологически слово гомосексуал представляет собой гибрид древнегреческого корня гомос, что значит «такой же, одинаковый» (часто, однако, этот корень путают с более поздним латинским корнем гомо, как в Homo sapiens, означающим «человек») и корня «секс». Тем самым слово гомосексуал этимологически имеет коннотацию с сексуальными актами и сексуальным влечением между людьми одного пола, включая лесбийскую любовь. См. также Мужчины, имеющие секс с мужчинами и Женщины, имеющие секс с женщинами В узком смысле слова гей относится только к мужской гомосексуальности, однако в широком смысле, часто используемом в англоязычных масс-медиа, это слово относят к гомосексуальности вообще, в частности и к лесбийской любви. Термин лесбийская любовь, однако, всегда обозначает исключительно женскую гомосексуальность. Гомосексуальное поведение встречается у многих видов животных, прежде всего у социальных животных. Seed: The Gay Animal Kingdom Общий обзор Homosexuality has been a feature of human culture since earliest history (see History section below). Generally, and most famously in ancient Greece, erotic attraction and sexual pleasure between males was an ingrained, accepted part of the cultural norm. However, particular sexual activities (such as receptive anal sex in some cultures, or oral sex in others) were disapproved of, even as other aspects were admired. In cultures under the sway of Abrahamic religions, the law and the church established sodomy as a transgression against divine law, a «crime against nature» practiced by choice, and subject to severe penalties, including capital punishment—often inflicted by means of fire so as to purify the unholy action. The condemnation of penetrative sex between males, however, predates Christian dogma, as it was frequent in Ancient Greece, whence the theme of action «against nature, „ traceable to Plato, originated. .“… sow illegitimate and bastard seed in courtesans, or sterile seed in males in defiance of nature.» Plato in THE LAWS (Book VIII p.841 edition of Stephanus) or p.340, edition of Penguin Books, 1972. In the last two decades of the nineteenth century, a different view began to predominate in medical and psychiatric circles, judging such behavior as indicative of a type of person with a defined and relatively stable sexual orientation. Karl-Maria Kertbeny coined the term homosexual in 1869 in a pamphlet arguing against a Prussian anti-sodomy law.Feray, Jean-Claude; Herzer, Manfred (1990). «Homosexual Studies and Politics in the 19th Century: Karl Maria Kertbeny». Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 19, No. 1. Richard von Krafft-Ebing's 1886 book Psychopathia Sexualis elaborated on the concept. In 1897, British physician Havelock Ellis published similar views in his influential book Sexual Inversion. (reprint) Although medical texts like these (written partly in Latin to obscure the sexual details) were not widely read by the general public, they did lead to the rise of Magnus Hirschfeld's Scientific Humanitarian Committee, which campaigned from 1897 to 1933 against anti-sodomy laws in Germany, as well as a much more informal, unpublicized movement among British intellectuals and writers, led by such figures as Edward Carpenter and John Addington Symonds. In the course of the twentieth century, homosexuality became a subject of considerable study and debate in Western societies, especially after the modern gay rights movement began in 1969. Once viewed by authorities as a pathology or mental illness to be cured, homosexuality is now more often investigated as part of a larger impetus to understand the biology, psychology, politics, genetics, history and cultural variations of sexual practice and identity. The legal and social status of people who perform homosexual acts or identify as gay or lesbian varies enormously across the world and in places remains hotly contested in political and religious debate. Этимология и использование термина and Hyacinthus'' Attic red-figure cup from Tarquinia, 480 BC (Boston Museum of Fine Arts)]] The adjective homosexual describes behavior, relationships, people, etc. The adjectival form literally means «same sex», being a hybrid formed from the Greek prefix homo-'' («same»), and the Latin root ''sex. Many modern style guides in the U.S. recommend against using homosexual as a noun, instead using gay man or lesbian.Media Reference Guide (citing AP, NY Times, Washington Post style guides), GLAAD. Retrieved 2007-05-10. Similarly, some recommend completely avoiding usage of homosexual as having a negative and discredited clinical history and because the word only refers to one’s sexual behavior, and not to romantic feelings. Gay and lesbian are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the acronym LGBT (sometimes written as GLBT), in which B'' and ''T refer to bisexuals and transgender people. These style guides are not always followed by mainstream media sources.See, for example, You calling me a poof? The Times; Scottish Hate Crime Laws extended to Homosexuals and Disabled The Herald, January 2008; and Council praised for 'gay' policy BBC news (see third paragraph) The first known appearance of homosexual in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet by the Austrian-born novelist Karl-Maria Kertbeny, published anonymously. The prevalence of the concept owes much to the work of the German psychiatrist Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing and his 1886 work Psychopathia Sexualis. As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th century tradition of personality taxonomy. These continue to influence the development of the modern concept of sexual orientation, gaining associations with romantic love and identity in addition to its original, exclusively sexual meaning. Although early writers also used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-sex context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction and activity. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love, homophilia. Other terms include men who have sex with men or MSM (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity), homoerotic (referring to works of art), heteroflexible (referring to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities), and metrosexual (referring to a non-gay man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion, and design). Pejorative terms in English include queer, faggot, fairy, poof, and homo. Beginning in the 1990s, some of these have been «reclaimed» as positive words by gay men and lesbians, as in the usage of queer studies, queer theory, and even the popular American television program Queer Eye for the Straight Guy. However, as with ethnic slurs and racial slurs, the misuse of these terms can still be highly offensive; the range of acceptable use depends on the context and speaker. Conversely, gay, a word originally embraced by homosexual men and women as a positive, affirmative term (as in gay liberation and gay rights), has come into widespread pejorative use among young people. Исторические сведения The lives of many historical figures including Socrates, Alexander the Great, Lord Byron, Edward II, Hadrian, Julius Caesar, Michelangelo, Donatello and Christopher Marlowe included or were centered upon love and sexual relationships with people of their own sex. Terms such as gay or bisexual have been applied to them, but many, such as Michel Foucault, regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary construction of sexuality foreign to their times. A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has criticized this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato, which he says indicate knowledge of exclusive homosexuality. Африка Though often denied or ignored by European explorers, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms: * Anthropologists Murray and Roscoe report that women in Lesotho have engaged in socially sanctioned «long term, erotic relationships» named motsoalle. * E. E. Evans-Pritchard reported that male Azande warriors (in the northern Congo) routinely married male youths who functioned as temporary wives. The practice had died out in the early 20th century but was recounted to him by the elders.Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (December, 1970). Sexual Inversion among the Azande. American Anthropologist, New Series, 72(6), 1428—1434. * An academic paper by Stephen O. Murray examines the history of descriptions of . Америка ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796—1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC]] In North American Native Society, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to center around the figure of the Two-Spirit individual. Such people seem to have been recognized by the majority of tribes, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognized early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then the child was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly shamans and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the opposite sex. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work. s upon Indian practitioners of male love in 1513; New York Public Library]] Homosexual and transgender individuals were also common among other pre-conquest civilizations in Latin America, such as the Aztecs, Mayans, Quechas, Moches, Zapotecs, and the Tupinambá of Brazil. The Spanish conquerors were horrified to discover «sodomy» openly practiced among native peoples, and attempted to crush it out by subjecting the berdaches (as the Spanish called them) under their rule to severe penalties, including public execution and burning. In a famous example of cruelty against homosexuals, in 1513 the conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered that the village of Quarequa modern-day Panama was stained by the foulest vice. The king’s brother and a number of other courtiers were dressed as women, and according to the accounts of the neighbours shared the same passion. Vasco ordered forty of them to be torn to pieces by dogs. The Spaniards commonly used their dogs in fighting against these naked people, and the dogs threw themselves upon them as though they were wild boars on timid deer. Mártir de Anglería, Pedro. (1530). Décadas del Mundo Nuevo. Quoted by Coello de la Rosa, Alexandre. «Good Indians», «Bad Indians», «What Christians?»: The Dark Side of the New World in Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés (1478—1557), Delaware Review of Latin American Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2002. Восточная Азия . Chinese Sexual Culture Museum in Shanghai.]] In East Asia same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history. Early European travelers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display. None of the East Asian countries today have specific legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior. Homosexuality in China, known as the pleasures of the bitten peach, the cut sleeve, or the southern custom, has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviors, but not identities (recently the Chinese society adapted the term "brokeback, " 斷背 duanbei, due to the success of Taiwanese director Ang Lee's film Brokeback Mountain). The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the Hong Lou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber, or Story of the Stone) seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of painting and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships. Similarly, in Thailand, Kathoey, or "ladyboys, « have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While Kathoey may encompass simple effeminacy or transvestism, it most commonly is treated in Thai culture as a third gender. They are generally accepted by society, and Thailand has never had legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior. Европа . Found in Bittir (?), near Jerusalem]] The earliest Western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as mythographic materials) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from ancient Greece. They depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man’s love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The practice, a system of relationships between an adult male and an adolescent coming of age, was often valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, and occasionally blamed for causing disorder. Plato praised its benefits in his early writings,Plato, Phaedrus in the Symposium but in his late works proposed its prohibition.Plato, Laws, 636D & 835E In Rome, the pagan emperor Hadrian allegedly practiced homosexuality himself, but the Christian emperor Theodosius I decreed a law on August 6, 390, condemning passive homosexual people to be burned at the stake. Justinian, towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558), warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the „wrath of God“. Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on brothels of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of Anastasius I in 518. During the Renaissance, rich cities in northern Italy, Florence and Venice in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.Rocke, Michael, (1996), Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence, ISBN 0-195122-92-5Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), The Boundaries of Eros, ISBN 0-195034-65-1 But even as many of the male population were engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the Officers of the Night court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk Girolamo Savonarola. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as Rembrandt, who in his Rape of Ganymede no longer depicted Ganymede as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey. The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: „The world is chang’d I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;…Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov’d Ganimede;“ (Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display’d, 1691.) Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the Famous Mr. Wilson was published in 1723 in England and was presumed to be a novel by some modern scholars. The 1749 edition of John Cleland's popular novel Fanny Hill includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749, the earliest extended and serious defense of homosexuality in English, Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified, written by Thomas Cannon, was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage, „Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts.“Gladfelder, Hal (May 2006) In Search of Lost Texts: Thomas Cannon’s 'Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified», Institute of Historical Research Around 1785 Jeremy Bentham wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978. Journal of Homosexuality (ISSN 0091-8369) Volume: 3 Issue: 4 , Volume: 4 Issue: 1 Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835. Between 1864 and 1880 Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love. In 1867 he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of homosexuality when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws. Sir Richard Francis Burton's Terminal Essay, Part IV/D appendix in his translation of The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (1885-86) provided an effusive overview of homosexuality in the Middle East and tropics. Sexual Inversion by Havelock Ellis, published in 1896, challenged theories that homosexuality was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of homosexuality and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Appendix A included A Problem in Greek Ethics by John Addington Symonds, which had been privately distributed in 1883. Beginning in 1894 with Homogenic Love, Socialist activist and poet Edward Carpenter wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and «came out» in 1916 in his book My Days and Dreams. In 1900, Elisar von Kupffer published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Weltliteratur. His aim was to broaden the public perspective of homosexuality beyond it being viewed simply as a medical or biological issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one. Ближний Восток, Южная и Центральная Азия (dancing boy)'' Samarkand, (ca 1905—1915), photo Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.]] Among many Middle Eastern Muslim cultures egalitarian or age-structured homosexual practices were, and remain, widespread and thinly veiled. The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were—and are—either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modeled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare. A tradition of art and literature sprang up constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality. Muslim—often Sufi—poets in medieval Arab lands and in Persia wrote odes to the beautiful wine boys who served them in the taverns. In many areas the practice survived into modern times, as documented by Richard Francis Burton, André Gide, and others. In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early Safavid era (1501—1723), male houses of prostitution (amrad khane) were legally recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, such as Sa’di (d. 1291), Hafez (d. 1389), and Jami (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with transgender young males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the köçeks and the bacchás, and Sufi spiritual practices in which the practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god. Some crossed over from the idealized chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated . In the Turkic-speaking areas, one manifestation of this same-sex love was the bacchá, adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers . In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet . Today, governments in the Middle East often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalize homosexuality. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, during his famous 2007 speech at Columbia University, asserted that there were no gay people in Iran. Gay people do live in Iran, but most keep their sexuality a secret for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families. Австралийско-Тихоокеанский регион In many societies of Melanesia, same-sex relationships were, until the middle of the last century, an integral part of the culture. In the traditional Melanesian insemination rituals a boy, upon reaching a certain age, would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and whom he would ritually fellate over a number of years in order to develop his own masculinity. In certain tribes of Papua New Guinea, for example, it was considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a relationship in order to accomplish his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries. Демографические и статистические сведения Measuring the prevalence of homosexuality presents a number of difficulties: * Survey data regarding stigmatized or deeply personal feelings or activities are often inaccurate. Participants often avoid answers which they feel society, the survey-takers, or they themselves dislike. * The research must measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation. The class of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the class of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the class of people who self-identify as gay/lesbian/bisexual.«Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources», Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139—154 (available on JSTOR). * In studies measuring sexual activity, respondents may have different ideas about what constitutes a «sexual act.» Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population would be valuable by informing public policy.«Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources», Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139—154 (available on JSTOR). For example, demographics would help in calculating the costs and benefits of domestic partnership benefits, of the impact of legalizing gay adoption, and of the impact of the U.S. military’s Don't Ask Don't Tell policy. Further, knowledge of the size of the «gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location.» Estimates of the incidence of exclusive homosexuality range from >1 % to 10 % of the population (though the accepted figure hovers closer to the middle of that range), usually finding there are slightly more gay men than lesbians.S. Hite, The Hite Report on Male Sexuality, New York, A. Knopf, 1991.S. S. et C. L. Janus, The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, ISBN 0-7216-5445-2(o.p.), ISBN 0-253-33412-8(reprint). Законодательство, политика и общество Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships vary over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death. Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated individuals above the local age of consent. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including marriage. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships—that is, in some jurisdictions homosexual activity is illegal. Offenders face up to the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as Iran and parts of Nigeria. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement. See Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered. Предрассудки по отношению к геям и лесбиянкам In many cultures, gay and lesbian people are frequently subject to prejudice and discrimination. Like many other minority groups that are the objects of prejudice, they are also subject to stereotyping. Gay men are seen as effeminate and fashionable, often identified with a lisp or a female-like tone and lilt. They are stereotyped as being promiscuous and unsuccessful in developing enduring romantic relationships, despite research to the contrary. Gay men are also often alleged as having pedophiliac tendencies and more likely to commit child sexual abuse than the heterosexual male population, a view rejected by mainstream psychiatric groups and contradicted by research. Freund et al. (1989). Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and erotic age preference. Journal of Sex Research, 26, 107—117. Lesbians are seen as butch, and sometimes «man-haters» or radical feminists. Homosexuality has at times been used as a scapegoat by governments facing problems. For example, during the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behavior were instrumental in disbanding the Knights Templar under Philip IV of France, who profited greatly from confiscating the Templars' wealth. In the 20th century, Nazi Germany's persecution of homosexual people was based on the proposition that they posed a threat to «normal» masculinity as well as a risk of contamination to the «Aryan race». In the 1950s, at the height of the red scare in the United States, hundreds of federal and state employees were fired because of their homosexuality in the so-called lavender scare. (Ironically, politicians opposed to the scare tactics of McCarthyism tried to discredit Senator Joseph McCarthy by hinting during a televised Congressional committee meeting that McCarthy’s top aide, Roy Cohn, was homosexual, as he in fact was.) A recent instance of scapegoating is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet Abu Nuwas by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate Islamic fundamentalists.Al-Hayat, January 13, 2001''Middle East Report'', 219 Summer 2001 Сексуальная ориентация и законы * Employment discrimination refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. In the United States there is «very little statutory, common law, and case law establishing employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation as a legal wrong.» § 5:17 Some exceptions and alternative legal strategies are available. President Bill Clinton's Executive Order 13087 (1998) prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the competitive service of the federal civilian workforce, and federal non-civil service employees may have recourse under the due process clause of the U.S. Constitution.Ashton v. Civiletti, 613 °F.2d 923, 20 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1601, 21 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) P 30297 (D.C. Cir. 1979) Private sector workers may have a Title VII action under a quid pro quo sexual harassment theory,Kelly v. City of Oakland, 198 °F.3d 779, 81 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1455, 77 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) P 46281 (9th Cir. 1999) a «hostile work environment» theory,Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 118 S. Ct. 998, 1002 (1998) a sexual stereotyping theory,Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, or others. * Housing discrimination refers to discrimination against potential or current tenants by landlords. In the United States, there is no federal law against such discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity, but at least thirteen states and many major cities have enacted laws prohibiting it. * A sodomy law is a law that defines certain sexual acts as sex crimes. The precise sexual acts meant by the term sodomy are rarely spelled out in the law, but is typically understood by courts to include any sexual act which does not lead to procreation. Furthermore, Sodomy has many synonyms: buggery, crime against nature, unnatural act, deviant sexual intercourse. It also has a range of similar euphemisms. While in theory this may include heterosexual oral sex, anal sex, masturbation, and bestiality, in practice such laws are primarily enforced against sex between men (particularly anal sex). In the United States, 47 out of 50 states had repealed any specifically anti-homosexual-conduct laws when the Supreme Court invalidated all sodomy laws in Lawrence v. Texas. Some other countries criminalize homosexual acts. In some Muslim nations (such as Iran) and African countries it remains a capital crime. In a highly publicized case, two male teenagers, Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, were hanged in Iran in 2005 reportedly because they had been caught having sex with each other. * Hate crimes (also known as bias crimes) are crimes motivated by bias against an identifiable social group, usually groups defined by race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, or political affiliation. In the United States, 45 states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions are AZ, GA, IN, SC, and WY). Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 32 of them cover sexual orientation, 28 cover gender, and 11 cover transgender/gender-identity. Преступления на почве ненависти по отношению к геям и лесбиянкам In the United States, the FBI reported that 15.6 % of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were based on perceived sexual orientation. Sixty-one percent of these attacks were against gay men. The 1998 murder of Matthew Shepard, a gay student, is one of the most notorious incidents in the U.S. Homosexual acts are punishable by death in some present-day countries including Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Политика 1482 (Spiezer Schilling)]] Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the Western world, such as in Denmark in 1933, in Sweden in 1944, in the United Kingdom in 1967, and in Canada in 1969, it was not until the mid-1970s that the gay community first began to achieve actual, though limited, civil rights in some developed countries. A turning point was reached in 1973 when the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, thus negating its previous definition of homosexuality as a clinical mental disorder. In 1977, Quebec became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. Since the 1960s, in part due to their history of shared oppression, many LGBT people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called gay culture. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the gay pride movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in «queer culture», and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others, the gay culture represents heterophobia and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and non-gay people. With the outbreak of AIDS in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs. Gay Men's Health Crisis, Project Inform, and ACT UP are some notable American examples of the LGBT community’s response to the AIDS crisis. The bewildering death toll wrought by the AIDS epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the gay rights movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include An Early Frost (1985), Longtime Companion (1990), And the Band Played On (1993), Philadelphia (1993), and Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt (1989), the last referring to the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt, last displayed in its entirety on the Mall in Washington, D.C., in 1996. During the 1980s and 1990s, most developed countries enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbians and gays in employment, housing, and services. Yet as LGBT people slowly gained legal protection and social acceptance, gay bashing and hate crimes also increased due to heterosexism and homophobia (See Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered). Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had sodomy laws or outright mass murder of gays in their recent past. Gay British politicians include former UK Cabinet ministers Chris Smith (now Lord Smith of Finsbury who is also a rare example of an openly HIV positive statesman) and Nick Brown, and, most famously, Peter Mandelson, a European Commissioner and close friend of Tony Blair. Openly gay Per-Kristian Foss was the Norwegian Minister of Finance until September 2005. Каминг-аут Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called «coming out» at some point in their lives. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself, " and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one’s decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues. This occurs with many people as early as age 11, but others do not clarify their sexual orientation until age 40 or older. The third phase more generally involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own parents are not even informed. Outing is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person. Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether, while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people. Однополые браки и гражданские союзы Government recognition of same-sex marriage is presently available in six countries and two U.S. states. The Netherlands was the first country to authorize same-sex marriage in 2001 and they are now also recognized in Belgium, Canada, South Africa, Spain, and the U.S. states of Massachusetts and Iowa, though Iowa’s issuance of marriage licenses is on hold until a Supreme Court appeal is heard. Israel's High Court of Justice ruled to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other countries, although it is still illegal to perform them within the country. Other countries, including the majority of European nations, have enacted laws allowing civil unions, designed to give gay couples similar rights as married couples concerning legal issues such as inheritance and immigration. Most Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Finland, with the sole exception of the Faroe Islands) have enacted civil union laws. Jurisdictions in the U.S. that offer civil unions or domestic partnerships granting nearly all of the state-recognized rights of marriage to same-sex couples include California (2000), Vermont (2000), Connecticut (2005), New Jersey (2006), Oregon (2007), and New Hampshire (2008). States in the U.S. with domestic partnerships or similar status granting some of the rights of marriage include Hawaii (1996), Maine (1999), Washington (2007), as well as the District of Columbia (Washington, DC) (2001). Родительство и усыновление Many openly LGBT people are parents, often by way of adoption, donor insemination, foster parenting, or surrogacy. In the 2000 U.S. Census, 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home.APA Policy Statement on Sexual Orientation, Parents & Children, American Psychological Association, July 28 & 30, 2004. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. Gay and lesbian parenting enjoys broad support from a number of organizations, including the American Psychological Association, the Child Welfare League of America, the American Bar Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the North American Council on Adoptable Children, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Psychoanalytic Association, and the American Academy of Family Physicians. The American Psychological Association in particular has stated that: there is no scientific evidence that parenting effectiveness is related to parental sexual orientation: lesbian and gay parents are as likely as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their children…research has shown that the adjustment, development, and psychological well-being of children is unrelated to parental sexual orientation and that the children of lesbian and gay parents are as likely as those of heterosexual parents to flourish…. Отношение на работе In some capitalist countries, large private sector firms often lead the way in the equal treatment of gay men and lesbians. For instance, more than half of the Fortune 500 offer domestic partnership benefits and 49 of the Fortune 50 companies include sexual orientation in their non-discrimination policies (only ExxonMobil does not).DeBare, Illana. «Gay, lesbian workers gradually gain benefits.» San Francisco Chronicle. 30 June 2006. Accessed 13 April 2007. Проблемы психического здоровья гомосексуалов Negative societal attitudes toward homosexuality contribute to stress and related mental disorders, and even suicide, in the LGBT community. However, there is evidence that the liberalization of these attitudes over the past few decades has resulted in a decrease in such mental health risks among younger LGBT people.Black gay men, lesbians, have fewer mental disorders than whites, says Mailman School of PH study Гомосексуальность у молодежи и подростков Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a «hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers». Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults. The Trevor Helpline, a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the Academy Award winning short film Trevor. Военная служба Some ancient and pre-modern societies, such as Greece and Japan, fostered erotic love bonds between experienced warriors and their apprentices. It was believed that a man and youth who were in love with each other would fight harder and with greater morale. A classic example of a military force built upon this belief is the Sacred Band of Thebes. The adoption of Christianity by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the fourth century and subsequent predominance of Christianity led to a diminished emphasis on erotic love among military forces. By the time of the Crusades, the military of Europe had largely switched gears, asserting that carnal relations between males were sinful and therefore had no place in an army that served their perception of God's will. The Knights Templar, a prominent military order, was destroyed by accusations (probably fabricated) of sodomy. The United Kingdom, Canada and the Netherlands admit openly gay service members, and others—like the United States, and many nations in South America and the Caribbean—either quiet or discharge anyone found to be engaging in homosexual relations or openly identifying as gay; the United States is known for its 1993 «don't ask, don't tell» policy. The traditional justification for excluding openly gay service members is that it may lead to «harassment, discord, blackmail, bullying or an erosion of unit cohesion or military effectiveness». The British military, which removed their restriction against gay service members in 2000, has not experienced any of these feared results. Религия Religions have had differing views about love and sexual relations between people of the same sex. Presently, a large proportion of the Abrahamic sects views non-reproductive sexuality, including homosexuality, negatively, though there are groups within each faith that disagree with allegedly orthodox positions and challenge their doctrinal authority. Oppostion to homosexual behaviour ranges from quietly discouraging displays and activities to those who explicitly forbid same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively oppose social acceptance of homosexuality. Support of homosexual behavior is reflected in the acceptance of sexually heterodox individuals in all functions of the church, and sanctification of same-sex unions. Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have generally been indifferent regarding the object of desire, while often problematizing desire itself. Some groups, such as the Hellenic religion and many Native faiths, have regarded some forms of homosexuality as sacred. Partially because of religious reasons, some gay men and lesbians seek to change their sexual orientations through religious faith and practice. In a survey of 882 people who were undergoing conversion therapy, attending ex-gay groups or ex-gay conferences, 22. 9 % reported they had not undergone any changes, 42.7 % reported some changes, and 34.3 % reported much change in sexual orientation. Exodus International is the largest ostensibly ex-gay group. A major ally of Exodus International is Focus on the Family, who works with Exodus International in their Love Won Out ministry. The overall trend of greater acceptance of gay men and women in the latter part of the 20th century was not limited to secular institutions; it was also seen in some religious institutions. Reform Judaism, the largest branch of Judaism outside Israel has begun to facilitate religious weddings for gay adherents in their synagogues. Jewish Theological Seminary, considered to be the flagship institution of Conservative Judaism, decided in March 2007 to begin accepting gay and lesbian applicants, after scholars who guide the movement lifted the ban on gay ordination. In 2005, the United Church of Christ became the largest Christian denomination in the United States to formally endorse same-sex marriage. On the other hand, the Anglican Communion encountered discord that caused a rift between the African (except Southern Africa) and Asian Anglican churches on the one hand and North American churches on the other when American and Canadian churches openly ordained gay clergy and began blessing same-sex unions. Other churches such as the Methodist Church had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography. Some religious groups have even promoted boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community. In early 2005, the American Family Association threatened a boycott of Ford products to protest Ford’s perceived support of «the homosexual agenda and homosexual marriage».«Family group to boycott Ford for its gay support.(American Family Association (AFA))(Brief Article).» PR Week (US) (June 6, 2005): 02. General Reference Center Gold. Thomson Gale. Newport News Public Library System. 7 Apr. 2007. Литература и искусство , Qing dynasty (c. 18th-19th); Kinsey Institute, Bloomington, Indiana]] The record of same-sex love has been preserved through literature and art. Male homoerotic sensibilities are visible in the foundations of art in the West, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. Homer's Iliad is considered to have the love between two men as its central feature, a view held since antiquity. Plato's Symposium also gives readers commentary on the subject, at one point putting forth the claim that male homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love. The European tradition of homoeroticism was continued in the works of artists and writers such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Shakespeare. Since the Renaissance, both male and female homoeroticism has remained a common, if subtle and hidden, theme in the visual arts of the West. In Islamic societies homoeroticism was present in the work of such writers as Abu Nuwas and Omar Khayyam. A large corpus of literature, numbering in the hundreds of works, fostered the shudo tradition in Japan, together with a widespread tradition of homoerotic shunga art.Gregory M. Pflugfelder, Cartographies of Desire, passim In the Chinese literary tradition, works such as Bian er Zhai and Jin Ping Mei survivd th many purges to record the homoerotic climate of their time. Today, the Japanese anime subgenre yaoi centers on gay youths. Japan is unusual in that the culture’s male homoerotic art has typically been the work of female artists addressing a female audience, mirroring the case of lesbian eroticism in western art. In the twentieth century, entertainers such as Noel Coward, Madonna, k.d. lang, and David Bowie have brought homoeroticism into the field of western popular music. It is through these and other modern songwriters and poets that female homoerotic work by women, rather than erotic art by men with lesbian themes, has had its greatest cultural impact in the West since the ancient Greek poet Sappho. In the 1990s, a number of American television comedies began to feature homosexual themes, and characters who expressed same-sex attractions. The 1997 coming-out of comedian Ellen DeGeneres on her show Ellen was front-page news in America and brought the show its highest ratings. However, public interest in the show swiftly declined after this, and the show was cancelled after one more season. Immediately afterward, Will & Grace, which ran from 1998 to 2005 on NBC, became the most successful series to focus on male homosexuality. Playwrights have penned such popular homoerotic works as Tennessee Williams's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Tony Kushner's Angels in America. Homosexuality has also been a frequent theme in Broadway musicals, such as A Chorus Line and Rent. In 2005, the film Brokeback Mountain was a financial and critical success internationally. Unlike most gay film characters, both the film’s gay lovers were traditionally masculine and married. The movie’s success was considered a milestone in the public acceptance of the American gay rights movement. Антропология Scholars who study the social construction of homosexuality investigate the various forms that same-sex relationships have taken in different societies, and look for patterns as well as differences. Their work suggests that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as «homosexualities». Anthropologists group these socio-historical variations into three separate categories: Usually in any society one form of homosexuality predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian Rictor Norton points out in his [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/social19.htm Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,] in ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of pederasty, and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual. Egalitarian homosexuality is the principal form present in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured homosexuality are less common. As a byproduct of growing Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian homosexuality is spreading from Western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures. Сексуальные практики Individuals may or may not express their sexual orientation in their behaviors. According to a 1990 study of The Social Organization of Sexuality, out of 131 women and 108 men who self-reported same-sex attraction, only 43 men (40 %) and 42 women (32 %) had participated in gay sex. In comparison, a survey by the Family Pride Coalition showed that 50 % of gay men had fathered children and 75 % of lesbians had children, and even more have had straight sex without having children. Lesbian sex can include tribadism, mutual masturbation, cunnilingus, and the use of sex toys for vaginal or oral penetration or clitoral stimulation. For men, gay sex can include mutual masturbation, frot, intercrural sex, oral sex and anal sex. As with any sexual relationship, people may begin with various forms of foreplay such as fondling, caressing, and kissing, and may or may not experiment with other practices, as they see fit. Теории происхождения гомосексуальности The American Academy of Pediatrics has stated, «Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences.» The American Psychological Association has stated that «there are probably many reasons for a person’s sexual orientation and the reasons may be different for different people». However, it states that for most people, sexual orientation is determined at an early age. The degree to which sexual orientation is determined by genetic or other prenatal factors plays a role in political and social debates about homosexuality, and also raises fears about genetic profiling and prenatal testing. The American Psychiatric Association has stated «To date there are no replicated scientific studies supporting any specific biological etiology for homosexuality. Similarly, no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause for homosexuality has been identified, including histories of childhood sexual abuse.» Биологические объяснения In 1993, Dean Hamer found the genetic marker Xq28 on the X chromosome. Hamer’s study found a link between the Xq28 marker and male homosexuality, but the original study’s results have been disputed.Doubt cast on 'gay gene', April 23, 1999, BBC News Several mutations have been identified in flies, such as changes in the fruitless gene, cause male flies to court and attempt to mate with other males; however, when a modified male fruit fly is isolated with only female fruit flies, then he will attempt to mate with them. Twin studies give indications that genes may predispose some men to seek partners of the same sex. Hamer commented «From twin studies, we already know that half or more of the variability in sexual orientation is not inherited. Our studies try to pinpoint the genetic factors, not to negate the psychosocial factors.» One common type of twin study compares the monozygotic (or identical) twins of people possessing a particular trait to the dizygotic (non-identical, or fraternal) twins of people possessing the trait. Bailey and Pillard (1991) in a study of gay twins found that 52 % of monozygotic brothers and 22 % of the dizygotic twins were concordant for homosexuality.cited in Wilson and Rahman 2005, p47 Bailey, Dunne and Martin (2000) used the Australian twin registry to obtain a sample of 4,901 twins. Теория пренатальных гормональных воздействий Гормональная теория происхождения гомосексуальности предполагает, что подобно тому, как воздействие или отсутствие воздействия пренатальных андрогенов в определённые критические периоды эмбрионального развития, оказывает влияние на дифференцировку наружных и внутренних половых органов (за исключением гонад), эти же гормональные воздействия могут оказывать влияние на сексуальную ориентацию и/или гендерную самоидентификацию индивида, проявляющуюся в более позднем (подростковом или взрослом) возрасте. Физиологические отличия геев и лесбиянок от гетеросексуалов Recent studies have found notable differences between the physiology of gay people and non-gay people. There is evidence that: * The average size of the INAH-3 in the brains of gay men is approximately the same size as INAH 3 in women, which is significantly smaller, and the cells more densely packed, than in heterosexual men’s brains. * The suprachiasmatic nucleus was found by Swaab and Hopffman to be larger in gay men than in non-gay men http://www.dafml.unito.it/anatomy/panzica/pubblicazioni/pdf/1995PanzicaJEI.pdf, the suprachiasmatic nucleus is also known to be larger in men than in women . * The anterior commissure is larger in women than men, and larger in gay men than in non-gay men. * Gay men have, on an average, slightly longer and thicker penises than non-gay men. * Gay men’s brains respond differently to fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. * The functioning of the inner ear and the central auditory system in lesbians and bisexual women are more like the functional properties found in men than in non-gay women (the researchers argued this finding was consistent with the prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation). * The startle response (eyeblink following a loud sound) is similarly masculinized in lesbians and bisexual women. * Three regions of the brain (medial prefrontal cortex, left hippocampus, and right amygdala) are more active in gay men than non-gay men when exposed to sexually arousing material. * Gay and non-gay people emit different armpit odors. * Gay men are more likely to have a counter-clockwise hair whorl pattern. http://www.iisc.ernet.in/academy/jgenet/Vol83No3/251.pdf * Gay and non-gay people’s brains respond differently to two human sex pheromones (AND, found in male armpit secretions, and EST, found in female urine). * Finger length ratios between the index and ring fingers may be different between non-gay and lesbian women. Когнитивные и поведенческие отличия геев и лесбиянок от гетеросексуалов Likewise, recent studies have found notable differences between the cognitive features of gay people and non-gay people. There is evidence that: * Gay men and lesbians are significantly more likely to be left-handed or ambidextrous than non-gay men and women; Simon LeVay argues that because «hand preference is observable before birth … the observation of increased non-right-handness in gay people is therefore consistent with the idea that sexual orientation is influenced by prenatal processes.» * Gay menGeoff Sanders, Ph.D. and Marian Wright, B.Sc.(1997), Sexual Orientation Differences in Cerebral Asymmetry and in the Performance of Sexually Dimorphic Cognitive and Motor Tasks and lesbians are more verbally fluent than heterosexuals of the same genderGSS data on verbal performance of homosexual, heterosexual, and bisexual males and females (but two studies did not find this result).Gladue, B. A., W. W. Beatty, et al. (1990). «Sexual orientation and spatial ability in men and women.» Psychobiology 18: 101—108. * Gay men are better than non-gay men at object location memory (no difference was found between lesbians and non-gay women). Связь с порядком рождения в семье There is evidence from numerous studies that homosexual men tend to have more older brothers than do heterosexual men, known as the «fraternal birth order effect.» One reported that each older brother increases the odds of being gay by 33 %. Blanchard and Klassen (1997); Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual versus heterosexual males and females. Review of Sex Research, Vol. 8 Peter Bearman found no association between sexual orientation and number of older brothers, and questions the data sampling methods of researchers who find a correlation. To explain this finding, it has been proposed that male fetuses provoke a maternal immune reaction that becomes stronger with each successive male fetus. Male fetuses produce H-Y antigens which may be involved in the sexual differentiation of vertebrates. It is this antigen which maternal H-Y antibodies are proposed to both react to and 'remember.' With each successive male pregnancy, Blanchard posits that H-Y antibodies cross the placenta and affect aspects of sexual differentiation in the fetal brain, although no apparent empirical evidence yet exists to support this hypothesis. Interestingly, this relation seems to hold only for right-handed males. There has been no observed equivalent for women. Небиологические объяснения Влияние среды, окружения и воспитания Ряд исследователей обнаружили, что гендерно-неконформное поведение в детстве является одним из наиболее точных признаков, предсказывающих проявление гомосексуальности во взрослом состоянии. Теория Дэрил Бем Экзотическое становится эротическим предполагает, что некоторые (гендерно-неконформные) дети предпочитают поведение и виды активности, которые более свойственны детям противоположного пола, и что это делает гендерно-конформного ребёнка чувствующим своё отличие от детей противоположного пола и сходство с детьми своего пола, в то время как гендерно-неконформный ребёнок будет чувствовать своё отличие от детей своего пола. Далее эта теория предполагает, что в дальнейшем это чувство отличия от других детей (соответственно, для гендерно-конформных детей — чувство отличия от детей противоположного пола, для гендерно-некорформных — своего) может трансформироваться в физиологическое или эмоционально-психологическое возбуждение в присутствии детей «отличающегося» пола (соответственно, своего или противоположного), и это возбуждение впоследствии, в свою очередь, может трансформироваться в эротическое или сексуальное возбуждение. Различные исследователи выдвигали предположения, что гендерная неконформность «пре-гомосексуальных» детей и подростков может быть обусловлена различными причинами — генетической предрасположенностью, пренатальными гормональными влияниями, личностными особенностями, родительским уходом и воспитанием или другими факторами окружающей среды. Питер Бирман показал, что мальчики, имеющие близнеца-девочку, вдвое чаще сообщают о наличии у них однополых влечений и желаний. Он предположил, что родители, воспитывающие близнецов разного пола, с большей вероятностью дадут им «унисекс» воспитание, унифицирующее гендерные различия мальчиков и девочек, что должно привести к меньшему маскулинизирующему влиянию на мальчиков. При этом наличие старшего брата уменьшало частоту встречаемости гомосексуальности у мальчиков, родившихся в разнополых близнецовых парах. Бирмагн объясняет это тем, что наличие старшего брата устанавливает для младшего некий образец для подражания, служащий механизмом гендерной социализации, что позволяет младшему компенсировать «унисекс» обращение со стороны родителей. Из исследования 275 мужчин из числа военнослужащих на Тайване, Шу и Лунг заключили, что «родительская защита и материнская гиперопека определённо являются главными факторами, влияющими на предрасположенность к развитию гомосексуальности у мужчин.» Ключевыми факторами развития гомосексуальности они называют «привязанность к родителям, интровертность, и невротические характеристики личности.» Другие исследователи также приводят данные о том, что гомосексуальные мужчины чаще сообщают о наличии в семье менее любящих и более отвергающих, чрезмерно авторитарных, жестоких или наоборот слабых и неавторитетных отцов, и о более тесных и близких отношениях с матерью, чем не-гомосексуальные мужчины. Bell, Weinberg, & Parks, 1981; Bieber et al., 1962; Braatan & Darling, 1965; Brown, 1963; Evans, 1969; Jonas, 1944; Millic & Crowne, 1986; Nicolosi, 1991; Phelan, 1993; Biggio, 1973; Seutter & Rovers, 2004; Siegelman, 1974; Snortum, 1969; Socarides, 1978; West, 1959). Является ли этот феномен истинной причиной гомосексуальности, или же родители ведут себя таким образом в ответ на черты гендерно-вариантного поведения у их ребёнка, остаётся неясным. Isay, Richard A. (1990). Being homosexual: Gay men and their development. HarperCollins. ISBN 0380710226.Isay, Richard A. (1996). Becoming gay: The journey to self-acceptance. New York, Pantheon. ISBN 0679421599. Врождённая бисексуальность Врождённая бисексуальность (или предрасположенность к бисексуальности) — это термин, введённый Зигмундом Фрейдом, который основывался на работах своего сотрудника Вильгельма Флисса. Эта теория предполагает, что все люди рождаются изначально бисексуальными, но в процессе психосоциального развития становятся моносексуальными (гомо- или гетеросексуальными), в то время как бисексуальность сохраняется в латентном состоянии, но может проявиться при определённых условиях. Исследования Альфреда Кинси, Сексуальное поведение самца человека и Сексуальное поведение самки человека''Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953, ISBN 0-7216-5450-9(o.p.), ISBN 0-671-78615-6(o.p. pbk.), ISBN 0-253-33411-X(reprint). обнаружили, что значительная часть, если не большинство, человеческой популяции имели в течение своей жизни те или иные гомосексуальные контакты, ощущения или эмоции и являются в той или иной степени бисексуальными. Отчёты Кинси обнаружили, что около 4 % взрослых американцев обоих полов были преимущественно гомосексуальны в течение всей своей жизни, и около 10 % взрослых американцев обоих полов были преимущественно гомосексуальны в течение значительных периодов своей жизни. Некоторые исследователи подвергли критике методологию, использовавшуюся Кинси в его работах, и предположили, что отчеты Кинси преувеличили частоту встречаемости бисексуальности и гомосексуальности в человеческой популяции. Патологическая модель гомосексуальности В научном сообществе гомосексуальность более не считается психическим заболеванием. В 1973 году Американская Психиатрическая Ассоциация убрала упоминание гомосексуальности как болезни или расстройства из раздела Сексуальные девиации второй редакции официального Диагностического и статистического руководства по психическим заболеваниям, так называемого DSM-II. Всемирная организация здравоохранения (ВОЗ) продолжала числить гомосексуальность как психическое заболевание в своём официальном диагностическом и статистическом справочнике МКБ-9 (Международной Классификации Болезней 9-го пересмотра), принятой в 1977 году. В 1990 году ВОЗ приняла резолюцию об исключении гомосексуальности из списка психических заболеваний в МКБ-10 (Международной Классификации Болезней 10-го пересмотра), окончательно принятой в 1993 году. МКБ-10 добавила эго-дистоническую сексуальную ориентацию в список заболеваний. Этот термин относится к людям, которые испытывают дискомфорт от своей сексуальной ориентации или гендерной идентичности и желает её сменить или "скорректировать" вследствие испытываемых психологических или поведенческих проблем и нарушений. ( ). Различные религиозные и консервативные группы, которые верят в эффективность конверсионной терапии, не приемлют официальную позицию большинства медицинского сообщества. Изменчивость сексуальной ориентации Американская Психиатрическая Ассоциация в своём заявлении указала, что «некоторые люди верят, что сексуальная ориентация человека является врождённой и фиксирована в течение жизни; однако сексуальная ориентация развивается и проявляется в течение жизни человека.» Вместе с другими крупными американскими медицинскими организациями они выпустили совместное заявление, в котором указывается, что «Сексуальная ориентация развивается и проявляется в течение жизни человека, и разные люди в разные периоды своей жизни приходят к пониманию, что они являются гетеросексуалами, геями, лесбиянками или бисексуалами.» Отчёт Центра Психического Здоровья и Аддиктивной Медицины говорит: «У некоторых людей сексуальная ориентация постоянна и неизменна в течение жизни. У других сексуальная ориентация может быть гибкой, подвижной и изменяться в течение жизни.» Одно из исследований заставляет предположить, что возможна «значительная гибкость и изменчивость у бисексуальных, неопределившихся и лесбийски ориентированных женщин в их влечениях, поведении и идентичности.» Однако эти организации и исследователи не считают, что сексуальная ориентация может являться «сознательным выбором, который можно изменить усилием воли.» Американская психиатрическая ассоциация заявила также, что никакая терапия не может изменить сексуальную ориентацию, и выразила беспокойство по поводу потенциальных негативных последствий попыток репаративной терапии. Американская психологическая ассоциация также говорит: «Может ли какая-либо терапия изменить сексуальную ориентацию? Нет… Она не требует лечения и не может быть изменена.» Директор офиса APA по исследованиям в области ЛГБТ объяснил это так: «Я не думаю, что кто-либо не согласится с идеей о том, что люди могут меняться, поскольку мы знаем случаи, когда гетеросексуальные люди становятся геями или лесбиянками и наоборот…. Вопрос лишь в том, может ли какая-либо терапия менять сексуальную ориентацию, как утверждают многие из этих людей.» Американская психиатрическая ассоциация указала, что «До настоящего времени, нет научно корректных исследований, позволяющих определить эффективность и безопасность „репаративных“ терапий», и заявила, что «поддерживает дальнейшие исследования с целью определения возможных рисков и пользы для пациентов.» Аналогичный отчёт выпустил главный хирург США Дэвид Сатчер, указав, что „в настоящее время нет валидных медицинских доказательств тому, что сексуальная ориентация может быть изменена посредством терапии“.The Surgeon General’s call to Action to Promote Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior», A Letter from the Surgeon General U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001-07-09. Retrieved 2007-03-29. Гомосексуальное поведение у животных Гомосексуальное поведение встречается у различных видов животных, прежде всего у социальных животных, в особенности у морских птиц и млекопитающих. Среди млекопитающих оно наиболее распространено у мартышек и больших человекообразных обезьян (гоминидов). Гомосексуальное поведение наблюдалось у примерно 1500 видов, и у приблизительно 500 из них оно хорошо документировано. Oslo gay animal show draws crowds, BBC News, 2006-10-19. Retrieved 2006-10-19 http://www.seedmagazine.com/news/2006/06/the_gay_animal_kingdom.php?page=all&p=y>. Эти открытия представляют один из основных аргументов против тех, кто сомневается в биологической природе и "естественности" гомосексуальности, или тех, кто полагает, что гомосексуальность является результатом влияния социальной среды или сознательного решения индивида. В частности, задокументировано, что самцы императорских пингвинов иногда формируют устойчивые, пожизненные однополые пары, строят совместные гнёзда и используют подходящие камни в качестве суррогатных яиц, которые они "высиживают". В одном хорошо известном случае 2004 года в Центральном Зоопарке в США сотрудники зоопарка заменили камень у одной такой однополой пары оплодотворённым яйцом, которое пара высидела и затем вырастила как собственного отпрыска. Smith, Datitia. (2004-02-07). «Central Park Zoo’s gay penguins ignite debate». San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved on 2007-09-08. Генетические причины гомосексуального поведения у животных изучались на примере плодовой мушки Drosophila melanogaster. Было показано, что в данном случае гомосексуальное поведение и формирование однополых пар может быть связано с мутациями не в одном, а в нескольких генах. Предполагают. что эти гены связаны с управлением поведением животных через феромоны, а также с изменениями анатомической структуры и особенностей функционирования мозга животного. Эти исследования также изучали вопрос о возможности влияния окружающей среды на вероятность проявления гомосексуального поведения у мушек-дрозофил. Профессор Джорджтаунского университета Джанет Манн предположила, что гомосексуальное поведение, как минимум у дельфинов, может представлять собой эволюционное приспособление, уменьшающее внутривидовую агрессию и социальную напряжённость в стае, в особенности среди молодняка мужского пола. Mann, J. «Establishing Trust: Sociosexual behaviour and the development of male-male bonds among Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphin calves.» Homosexual Behaviour in Animals: An Evolutionary Perspective. Ed. P. Vasey and V. Sommer. : Cambridge University Press, 2006. Исследования, показывающие возможность наличия врождённой гомосексуальности у некоторых видов животных, имели социальные и политические последствия для дебатов по вопросу о правах ЛГБТ в ряде стран Запада. Ссылки Библиография Книги * Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, , Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 1979, ISBN 0-674-36261-6 (hardcover), ISBN 0-674-36270-5 (paperback) * John d’Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940—1970, University of Chicago Press 1983, ISBN 0226142655 * Norman Roth. The care and feeding of gazelles — Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry. IN: Lazar & Lacy. Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages, George Mason University Press 1989, ISBN 0913969257 * Allan Bérubé, Coming out under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two, New York: MacMillan 1990, ISBN 0029031001 * Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7 * Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality New York and London, Garland Publishing 1990, ISBN 0824065441 * Foucault, Michel, The History of Sexuality vol. 1: An Introduction, p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage 1990 * George Rousseau, Perilous Enlightenment: Pre- and Post-Modern Discourses--Sexual, Historical, Manchester University Press 1991, ISBN 0719033012 * Lillian Faderman, Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth Century America, Penguin 1992 * Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies. Haworth Press, 1992 * George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender Urban Culture and the Making of the Gay Male World, New York: Basic Books, 1994 * Juanita Ramos , Compañeras: Latina Lesbians : An Anthology, Routledge 1994 * Johansson, Warren and Percy, William A., (1994), Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence, Harrington Park Press * Robert T. Michael, John H. Gagnon, Edward O. Laumann, and Gina Kolata. Sex in America: A definitive survey. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. ISBN 0-316-07524-8 * Percy, William A Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece. University of Illinois Press, 1996 * Lester G. Brown, Two Spirit People, 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4 * Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-1287-3. * Jennifer Terry, An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Homosexuality in Modern Society, University of Chicago Press 1999, ISBN 0-226-79367-2 * Bullough, Vern L. Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context, Harrington Park Press 2002 * Ruth Vanita, Queering India: Same-Sex Love and Eroticism in Indian Culture and Society, Routledge 2002 * Joanne Meyers, Historical Dictionary of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage, Scarecrow Press 2003 * David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004 Журнальные статьи * Bowman, Karl M.; Eagle, Bernice The Problem of Homosexuality, Journal of Social Hygiene 1953 * Norton, Rictor and Crew, Louis The Homophobic Imagination, College English 1974 * Simon LeVay, A difference in hypothalamic structure between homosexual and heterosexual men, Science Magazine 1991 * Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27, Journal of Homosexuality, Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18, 1998 Онлайн-публикации * BBC News (Feb 1998): Fingerprints Study * BBC News (Apr 1999): Doubt cast on 'gay gene' * WebMD (March 2000): Pointing the Finger at Androgen as a Cause of Homosexuality * BBC News (Oct 2004): Genetics of homosexuality * James Davidson, London Review of Books, 2 June 2005, «Mr and Mr and Mrs and Mrs» — detailed review of The Friend, by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds См. также * List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people * Romantic friendship * Human Rights Campaign * Mythology of same-sex love * Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures * Homosexuality and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Внешние ссылки * Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality The American Psychological Association * Biology behind homosexuality in sheep, study confirms * One National Gay & Lesbian Archives * Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy — Same-sex Orientation * USRainbowPages.com Scientific Gay Scientific Eye for the Queer Guy * European Court of Human Rights Rulings Against Military Forces Категория:ЛГБТ Категория:Сексуальная ориентация и идентичность Категория:Сексуальная ориентация Категория:Гендер Категория:Гендерные исследования * en:Homosexuality